Beginning of Magadhan Ascendancy and beyond

Beginning of Magadhan Ascendancy and beyond

1. Magadha kingdom's most remarkable king was Srenika or Bimbisara, who was anointed king by his father at the young age of 15.

2. The capital of Bimbisara's kingdom was Girivraja. It was girded with stone walls which are among the oldest extant stone structuresin India.

3. The most notableachievement of Bimbisara was the annexation of neighbouring kingdom of Anga or
East Bihar. He also entered into matrimonial alliances with ruling families of Kosala and Vaishali. The
Vaishali marriage paved the
way for expansion of Magadha
northword to the borders
of Nepal.

4. Gautama Buddha and Vardhaman Mahavira preached their doctrines during the reign of Bimbisara.

5. The modern town of Rajgir in the Patna district was built by Bimbisara. He had named it Rajagriha or the king's house.

6. Bimbisara was succeeded by his son Ajatshatru. Tradition affirms that Bimbisara was murdered by Ajatshatru.

7. To repel the attacks of the Vrijis of Vaishali, Ajatshatru fortified the village of Pataligrama, which stood at the confluence of Ganga and Sona rivers. This fortress, within a generation, developed into the stately city of Pataliputra (modern day Patna).

8. According to the Puranas, the immediate successor
of Ajatshatru was
Darsaka, after whom came his son Udayi.

9. The name of Darsaka also occurs in a play named Svapna-Vasavadatta, attributed to Bhasa, which represents him as a brother-in-law and contemporary of Udayana, king of Kausambi. However, Jain and Buddhist writers assert that Udayi was son of Ajatshatru.

10. Bimbisara's dynastic lineage ended with the Nanda
ynasty taking over the  reigns of Magadha. The first king of Nanda dynasty was Mahapadma or Mahapamapati Nanda. He was succeeded by his eight sons, of whom the last was named Dhana-
Nanda.

11. Dhana-Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta
Maurya, the founder of a new and more illustrious dynasty.

12. Among the State functionaries, the Purohit was of special importance in Kasi-Kosala, as we learn from Ramayan and several Jatakas. In Kuru-Panchal and Matsya countries it was the Senapati who held the special place.

13. The armies of the period usually consisted of infantry, cavalry, chariots
and elephants. While rulers of deltaic regions were known to maintain small naval fleets, a big naval department came into being only during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.

14. The Indian infantry usually carried long bows and iron-tipped arrows made of cane. They used to
wear cotton garments. The chariots of the cavalry were drawn by horses or wild asses and carried six soldiers apiece—two bowmen, two shield bearers and two charioteers.

15. Greek writers bear testimony to the fact that in the art of war Indians were far superior to other peoples of Asia. Their failure against
foreign invaders was often
due to inferiority in cavalry. Indian commanders pinned their faith more in elephants than horses.

16. The oldest source of
revenues was the bali. Bhaga, the king's share of reaped corn, became the most important source of State revenue in course of time. Among the most important revenue officials was the Grama-bhojaka or village head-man.

17. The early Buddhist texts refer to six big cities that flourished during the days of the Buddha. These were: Champa (near Bhagalpur), Rajagriha (in Patna district), Sravasti (Saheth- Maheth), Saketa (Oudh), Kausambi (near Allahabad) and Benaras (Varanasi).

18. The usual recreations
of women during the Magadhan era were singing, dancing and music. Little princesses used to play with dolls called panchalikas.

19. The chief pastimes
of knights were gambling, hunting, listening to tales of war and tournaments in amphitheatres. Buddhist texts refer to acrobatic feats, combats of animals and a kind of primitive chess play.

20. The principal seaports of the period were: Bhrigukachcha (Broach), Surparaka (Sopara, north of Mumbai), and Tamralipti (Tamluk in West Bengal). 21. The chief articles of
trade during the Magadhan
era were: silk, muslin, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and gold. The standard unit
of value was the copper
Karshapana, weighing a little more than 146 grains. Silver coins, called Purana or
Dharana, were also in circulation. The weight of a silver coin was a little more than 58 grains, which is one-tenth of that of the Nishka known to the Vedic texts.

22. The first undoubted historical reference to
image-worship by an Aryan tribe occurs in passage of Curtis, who states that an image of Herakles was carried in front of Paurava army as it advanced against Alexander.

23. The early Magadhan period saw development of variant languages from Sanskrit. In the towns and the villages a popular form of Sanskrit, Prakrit, was spoken. This had local variations; the chief western variety was called Shauraseni and the eastern variety Magadhi. Pali was another local language. The
Buddha, wishing to reach
wider audience, taught in
Magadhi.

 
 

Persian and Macedonian Invasions

24. Cyrus, the founder
of the Achaemenian empire
of Persia, destroyed the famous city of Kapisa near the junction of the Ghorband and Panjshir rivers northeast of Kabul.

25. The successor of Cyrus, Darius sent a naval expedition to the Indus under the command of Skylax.
This expedition paved the
way for the annexation of the
Indus valley as far as the
deserts of Rajputana. The area became the most populous satrapy of the Persian empire and paid a tribute proportionately
larger than all the
rest—360 Eubic talents of gold dust, equivalent to more than a million sterling.

26. Once the Persian hold over Indian possessions became weak, the old territory of Gandhara was divided into two parts. To the west of Indus river lay the kingdom
of Pushkalavati in the modern district of Peshawar; to the east was Takshasila in present district of Rawalpindi. Tradition affirms that
Mahabharata was first recited
in Takshasila.

27. In 331 B.C., Alexander inflicted heavy blows on the king of Persia and occupied his realm. In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush and resolved to recover the Indian satrapies that had once been under his Persian predecessors.

28. To secure his communications, Alexander garrisoned a number of strongholds near modern Kabul and passed the winter of 327-326 B.C. in warfare with fierce tribes of Kunar and Swat valleys.

29. Alexander finally crossed Indus river in 326 B.C. using a bridge of boats. Ambhi, the king of Taxila gave him valuable help in this.

30. Alexander's march faced a major hurdle when it reached the banks of Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) river, near the town of Jhelum. Here he faced stiff resistance from Paurava
king (Porus).

31. After crossing the Akesines (Chenab) and the Hydraotes (Ravi), Alexander stormed Sangala, the stronghold of the Kathaioi, and moved on to the Hyphasis (Beas). He wished to press forward to the Ganga valley, but his war-worn troops refused. Alexander erected 12
towering altars to mark the
utmost limit of his march, and
then retraced his steps to
Jhelum.

32. During the return journey, Alexander received a dangerous wound while torming a citadel of the  powerful tribe of the
Malawas. He returned to Babylon after a long and treacherous journey and died soon after in 323 B.C.

33. The Persian conquest unveiled India for the first time to the Western world and established contact between the people of both regions. 34. The introduction of new scripts—Aramaic,
Kharoshti and the alphabet
style Yavanani by Panini— can be traced to Greek source.

35. The Macedonian garrisons were swept away by Chandragupta Maurya. However, these were not wiped out completely. Colonies like Yavana continued to serve the king of Magadha just as they served the Macedonians, and carved out an independent kingdom only after the sun set of Magadha.

36. One positive outcome of Alexander's invasion was that Greeks of later ages got to learn lessons in philosophy and religion from Indian Buddhists and Bhagavatas and Indians learned use of coins, honoured Greek astronomers and learned to appreciate Hellenistic art.

37. One of the most remarkable things in the foreign policy of Alexander was his encouragement
of inter-racial
marriages. He was the first ruler known to history who contemplated the brotherhood of man and the unity of mankind. The White
Kafirs of Kafiristan, classed in Ashoka's edicts as definitely Greeks, are said to be descended from Alexander's men. Of the ruling Frontier families, eight claim direct lineage from the son
born to Alexander by
Cleophis queen of the
Assakenoi.

 Jainism and Buddhism

38. The parents of Mahavira were Siddhartha, a Janatrika chief of Kundapura, and Trishala, a Kshatriya lady related to the ruling families of Vaishali and Magadha.

39. Mahavira married a princess named Yashoda.

40. Mahavira forsookthe world at the age of thirty and roamed as a naked ascetic in several parts of eastern India and practiced severe penance for 12 years. Half of this time was spent with a mendicant (beggar) friar (brother) named Goshala who subsequently left him and became the leader of the Ajivika
ect.

41. In the 13th year of penance, Mahavira attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala-jnana, on the northern bank of river
Rijupalika, outside Jrimbhikagrama, a little known locality in eastern India. He was now known as a Kevalin (omniscient), a Jina (conqueror) and Mahavira (the great hero).

42. Mahavira became the head of a sect called Nigranthas (free from Fretters), known in later times as Jains or followers of Jina (conqueror).

43. Mahavira died at Pava in south Bihar, after wandering for 35 years as a religious teacher, at the age of 72.

44. The Jains believe that Mahavira was not the
founder of a new religious system, but the last of a long succession of 24 Tirthankars or "ford-makers across the stream of existence".

45. The 23rd teacher, Parsav, the immediate predecessor of Mahavira, was a prince of Benaras and enjoined on his disciples the great four vows of non-injury,
truthfulness, abstention from
stealing and non-attachment.
Mahavira added the vow of
Brahamcharya or continence
to this.

46. Jainism was atheistic
in nature, the existence of
God being irrelevant to its
doctrine. It believes that universe
functions according to
an eternal law and is continually
passing through a
series of cosmic waves of
progress and decline. Everything
in the universe, material
or otherwise, has a soul.
The purification of the soul
is the purpose of living, for
the pure soul is released
from the body and then
resides in bliss.

47. Jains believe that by
following the three-fold
path of right Belief, right
Knowledge and right Conduct,
souls will be released
from transmigration and
reach the pure and blissful
abode or Siddha Sila.

48. Jainism spread
rapidly among the trading
community. The emphasis on
non-violence prevented agriculturists
from being Jainas, since
cultivation involved killing
insects and pests.

49. According to the tradition
of the Svetambara
Jains, the original doctrine
taught by Mahavira was
contained in fourteen old
texts styled Purvas.

50. Close to 4th century
B.C., due to a famine in
south Bihar, important sections
of Jains, headed by
Bhadrabahu, fled to Mysore.

51. To revive the knowledge
of sacred texts, which
was passing into oblivion
following the famine in
south Bihar and fleeing of
majority of Jains, a council
was convoked by those who
were left behind in Pataliputra,
which resulted in compilation
of the 12 Angas which
are regarded as the most important
part of the Jain canon.
Another council was held at
Valabhi in Gujarat in 5th or
6th century A.D. which
made a final collection of the
scriptures and reduced them
to writing.

52. The followers of
Bhadrabahu, on their return
to the north, refused to
acknowledge the Angas and
came to be known as Svetambaras
(clad in white) as
they wore white garments
notwithstanding the injunctions
of Mahavira. The original
followers came to be called
Digambaras (sky-clad or
naked).

53. Gautama Buddha
was born as Siddhartha to
Suddhodana, a Raja or noble
of Kapilvastu (in the Nepal
Terai to the north of Basti
district of Uttar Pradesh)
and Maya, a princess of
Devadaha, a small town in
the Sakya territory. Maya died
while giving birth to Siddhartha
and he was brought up
by his aunt and step-mother  Prajapati Gautami.

54. The site of nativity of
Gautama Buddha is marked
by the celebrated Rummindei
Pillar of Ashoka.

55. Siddhartha was married
to Yashodara at the age
of 16. Yashodara was also
known as Bhadda Kachchana,
Subhadraka, Bimba
or Gopa.

56. The Great Renunciation
took place when Sidhartha
reached the age of 29.
For six years he lived as a
homeless ascetic. At Uruvila
he practiced the most rigid
austerities only to find that
they were of no help to him
to achieve his goal.

57. Sidhartha finally sat
under a pipal or Banyan tree
at modern Bodh Gaya, after
taking a bath in the stream of
river Nairanjana, modern
Lilajan. Here he attained the
supreme knowledge and
insight and became known
as Buddha or the Enlightened
One, Tathagata ("he
who attained the truth") and
Sakya-muni or the sage of
the Sakya clan.

58. The first sermon by
Buddha was given in the
Deer Park near Sarnath, in
the neighbourhood of
Benaras. This sermon was
called the Turning of the
Wheel of Law, and was the
nucleus of the Buddhist teachings.

59. Among Buddha's
early converts was his
cousin Devadatta who, subsequently
broke away and
founded a rival sect that survived
in parts of Oudh and
western Bengal till the Gupta
period.

60. The Buddha is said
to have died at the age of 80
at Kusinagar, modern Kasia
in the Gorakhpur district of
Uttar Pradesh.

61. Buddha taught his followers the four "Noble
Truths" (Arya Satya) concerning
suffering, the cause
of suffering, the destruction
of suffering and the way that
leads to the destruction of
sorrow.

62. As per Buddhist
teachings, salvation is possible
through the Eightfold
Path, which consisted
of eight principles of
action, leading to a balanced,
moderate life (right
views, resolves, speech
conduct, livelihood, effort,
recollection and meditation,
the combination of
which was described as
Middle Way).

63. The doctrine of karma
was essential to the Buddhist
way of salvation.
Unlike the brahmanical idea,
karma was not used to
explain away caste status,
since Buddha rejected caste.

64. Buddhism was atheistic,
in as much as God was
not essential to the Universe,
there being a natural cosmic
rise and decline.

65. The acceptance of
nuns in the Buddhist monasteries
was a revolutionary
step from the point of view
of the status of women.

66. The earliest surviving
form of Buddhism,
called Theravada, is still
predominant in Sri Lanka
nd South-East Asian countries.

67. Shortly after the
death of Buddha a great
Council (Sangiti) was held
at Rajagriha to compile the
religious doctrine (Dharma)
and the monastic code
(Vinaya). A second council
was convoked a century later
at Vaishali which condemned
the rules in respect
of the ten points and revised
the scriptures.

68. A fresh condemnation
of heresy took place
during the reign of Ashoka,
under whose patronage a
third council was summoned
at Pataliputra by a
learned monk, Tisaa Moggaliputta,
236 years after
Buddha's death.

69. The fourth council
was held under Kanishka
hich prepared elaborate commentaries (Upadesh
Shastras and Vibhasha Shastras)
on the sacred texts.

70. According to Sri
Lankan tradition, the sacred
texts and commentaries
were written down in books
in first century B.C. during
the reign of King Vattagamani
Abhaya. Later, the
texts, as distinguished from
the commentaries, came to
be known as Pali.